In African-american and Hispanic Families, Collectivistic Values Impact Gendered Family Roles.

Subst Utilize Misuse. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2013 Feb one.

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PMCID: PMC3402241

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Gender Roles and Substance Use Among Mexican American Adolescents: A Relationship Moderated by Acculturation?

Abstruse

This research assesses the effects of adaptive/maladaptive gender roles and acculturation in predicting substance use in a 2007 sample of 1466 Mexican American 7th-grade adolescents from Phoenix, Arizona, Usa. Multiple regression analyses found significant furnishings for both adaptive and maladaptive gender roles, likewise as several gender-specific interactions betwixt gender roles and linguistic acculturation that predicted substance employ. Limitations of the inquiry are noted, too every bit implications for understanding the impact of acculturation on how gender roles differentially affect substance use in Mexican American boys versus girls.

Keywords: gender roles, gender, acculturation, substance employ, Mexican American adolescents

INTRODUCTION

In national U.s. surveys, Latino adolescents take been shown to exist at high hazard for substance use and abuse.ⁱ Amidst eighth graders, Latino students take college rates of use than non-Hispanic Whites and African Americans on most all legal and illegal substances, and higher rates in twelfth grade for use of crevice, heroin, methamphetamine, and crystal methamphetamine (Johnston, O'Malley, Bachman, & Schulenberg, 2008). Acculturation is also an important gene in Latino substance use. Among Mexican-heritage youth responding in the National Survey on Drug Employ and Wellness, xix% of the US-born and 13% of the Mexican-born immigrants reported utilise of alcohol, and this difference narrows with the immigrants' length of U.s. residence (Gfroerer & Tan, 2003).

Prior studies have established that gender role socialization is a factor in substance use for Latinos of Mexican heritage, both those living in the US and those living in Mexico (Kulis, Marsiglia, Lingard, Nieri, & Nagoshi, 2008, Kulis, Marsiglia, & Nagoshi, 2010; Lara-Cantu, Medina-Mora, & Gutierrez, 1990). Several mechanisms accept been proposed for how acculturation increases the risk for substance utilise in Mexican American adolescents, for example, by increasing associations with more than acculturated peers, which exposes adolescents to risky behaviors, which include the apply of drugs (Marsiglia, Kulis, Wagstaff, Elek, & Dran, 2005). Acculturation may also increase the risk for substance use by changing Mexican American youth'southward adherence to traditional gender roles of machismo and marianismo, which are predictive of the level of substance employ (Gil, Wagner, & Vega, 2000; Strait, 1999). The research presented hither assessed the furnishings of adaptive/desirable and maladaptive/undesirable gender roles in predicting substance use in a sample of Mexican American middle schoolhouse youth. Analyses also tested the moderating effects of acculturation in an endeavour to begin to elucidate the dynamic relationships between acculturation, gender roles, and substance use.

Biological Sex, Gender Roles, and Substance Use

Sex differences are an important factor in agreement substance apply and have been studied extensively (Dakof, 2000; Ellis, O'Hara, & Sowers, 2000, Freshman & Leinwand, 2000; Kulis, Yabiku, Marsiglia, Nieri, & Crossman, 2007). While girls progress more than slowly than boys to drug use initiation, in one case girls begin to use, they progress faster to addiction than boys when using the same amount of substances (Guthrie & Low, 2000; Kauffman, Silver, & Poulin, 1997; The National Heart on Habit and Substance Abuse [NCASA], 2003).

Although biological sex activity is an of import predictor of substance use patterns, it is generally not malleable. In dissimilarity, gender roles are the event of socialization and may be useful targets for intervention to forestall substance use and misuse. Gender roles are defined equally the stereotypical emotions, cognitions, and behaviors associated with being male or female that are presumably caused through socialization (social learning, modeling, etc.). For males, traditional gender roles typically promote being active, ambitious, and expressive of anger, only without displaying sadness (Block, 1983). These traditional male gender roles have been coined "masculine" or "instrumental" behaviors, i.east., focused on attainment of goals external to the social interaction process (Gill, Stockard, Johnson, & Williams, 1987). In plow, traditional gender roles promote women to be passive, compliant, and expressive of sadness without showing acrimony (Block, 1983). These traditional female gender roles have been coined "feminine" or "expressive" behaviors, i.e., giving primacy to facilitating the social interaction process (Gill, Stockard, Johnson, & William, 1987).

Spence's (1984) functional model suggests that gender office socialization influences an individual's vulnerability to both stress and distress, and consequently, the amount of distress experienced. Spence argues that personality attributes are adaptive through either instrumentality or expressivity, which is and then inversely related to pathology. For example, highly instrumental individuals are less likely to see events as beingness threatening and are more probable to apply problem-solving skills to cope with stressful situations that ascend (Nezu & Nezu, 1987; Towbes, Cohen, & Glyshaw, 1989). Highly expressive individuals are also less likely to have pathological problems, due to their effective interpersonal skills and high levels of social back up (Steenberger & Greenberg, 1990; Wells, 1980). On the other hand, gender roles may predict maladaptive psychological functioning among adolescents past externalizing (impulsivity, sensation seeking, antisociality) or internalizing (depression, feet, social withdrawal) problem behaviors (Oldehinkel, Hartman, Winter, Veenstra, & Ormel, 2004), which are linked to substance utilise.

To clarify the relationships between gender roles and problem behaviors, such as substance use, some researchers (Marsh & Myers, 1986; Ricciardelli & Williams, 1995; Russell & Antill, 1984) take proposed differentiating between the adaptive and the maladaptive aspects of masculinity and femininity by distinguishing betwixt socially desirable and socially undesirable masculine and feminine traits. Aggressive (maladaptive) masculinity is characterized by controlling and dominance, while assertive (adaptive) masculinity is characterized past self-confidence, competence, and leadership. Submissive (maladaptive) femininity is characterized by inadequacy and dependence, while affective (adaptive) femininity is characterized by emotional expressiveness, empathy, nurturance, and sense of communion. Another way of understanding this is that the maladaptive aspects of masculinity represent the extremes of instrumentality, where assertiveness becomes aggressiveness, and the maladaptive aspects of femininity correspond the extremes of expressivity, where sensitivity to interpersonal relationships becomes emotional over-reactivity and social submissiveness or dependency. This may explain some of the seemingly contradictory findings discussed next, in which gender roles seem to predict both adaptive and maladaptive psychological functioning. Figure i depicts the functional pathways that theoretically link adaptive and maladaptive gender roles to greater or lesser risk for substance use.

Functional pathways between adaptive and maladaptive gender roles and drug use.

Using this schema, Williams and Ricciardelli (1999) found in a sample of US higher students that high maladaptive masculinity and low adaptive femininity were predictors of greater alcohol-related problems for adult men and women. Depression adaptive masculinity and low adaptive femininity too predicted problem drinking in both men and women, possibly due to a need to use alcohol to heighten one'due south sense of masculinity or femininity.

Gender Roles and Drug Employ in Mexican American Adolescents

Studies have examined the relationships between biological sex, gender roles, and drug use in Mexican and Mexican Americans adolescents (Kulis, Marsiglia, & Hecht, 2002; Kulis, Marsiglia, & Hurdle, 2003; Kulis et al, 2008; Kulis et al., 2010). Mexican culture traditionally is viewed every bit promoting two primary gender roles, machismo and marianismo. Adaptive aspects of adulthood include honor, respect, bravery, and a deep sense of family commitment (Marsiglia & Waller, 2002). Maladaptive characteristics of adulthood are invulnerability, patriarchal dominance, and aggressiveness (Goldwert, 1983), which may be associated with adultery, abandonment of children, risk taking, and domestic violence (Gutmann, 1996; Kulis et al., 2003). Marianismo can be characterized by adaptive characteristics such equally self-sacrifice, collectivism, family devotion, and the nurturing of others, but information technology too may promote undesirable characteristics such equally dependency, passiveness, and submissiveness (Kulis et al., 2003; Stevens, 1973).

Traditional Mexican gender roles, adulthood and marianismo, play an important role in substance apply in Mexicans and Mexican Americans. These traditional, more polarized gender roles have been linked to strong gender differences in substance use amidst girls versus boys (Kulis et al., 2003). Men who accredit to more traditional gender beliefs (emphasizing high instrumentality and low expressivity) may appoint in antisocial behavior and substance use in club to prove their masculinity or appear "macho" (Unger et al., 2006). Machismo and celebratory fiesta drinking emphasize both rampage drinking (Caetano & Medina-Mora, 1988) and the power to manage high levels of alcohol consumption without losing self-control (Loury & Kulbok, 2007). Mexican cultural norms encourage men to drinkable when and where they similar, while there is far less tolerance and acceptance of excessive drinking by women (Wycoff, 2000; Medina-Mora & Rojas Guiot, 2003). In support of traditional gender roles, women are encouraged to abjure from drinking out of concern for the maladaptive furnishings that substance use has on their family and friends (Perea & Slater, 1999).

In a sample of Mexican adults, Lara-Cantu et al. (1990) found that, for men, assertive masculinity and affective femininity were associated with greater booze use, but submissive femininity and aggressive masculinity were associated with greater alcohol use problems. For women, ambitious masculinity predicted greater alcohol use, while melancholia femininity predicted less alcohol employ and fewer alcohol use social problems, such equally violence and difficulties with the partner. With regard to Mexican adolescents, a recent study by Kulis et al. (2008) differentiated between adaptive and maladaptive gender roles in predicting substance use. In general, aggressive masculinity was correlated with greater substance use, while affective femininity was predictive of lower substance use for both boys and girls. Significant gender-specific furnishings were simply found for affective femininity, which was correlated with less cigarette use amongst boys merely not among girls, and aggressive masculinity, which was a stronger indicator of sharing or selling drugs for boys than for girls. Similar to the findings described next, femininity was constitute to be correlated with less externalizing behavior, while masculinity was predictive of more externalizing behavior in boys.

Acculturation equally a Moderator of the Gender Role-Substance Use Relationship

Many Mexican Americans from immigrant families need to cope with a variety of stressors every bit they adjust to their new communities. During the acculturation process, in that location is typically socialization into the host dominant culture and a desire to get a part of the new culture. At the same time, there are pressures and desires to retain one's identity from ane's culture of origin (Marsiglia et al., 2005). Adolescents' gender role expectations can change as youth transition to the gender role expectations of the new culture, which can affect their risk for substance use. Relative to more acculturated youth, less acculturated adolescents prove greater gender differences in substance employ (Kulis et al., 2003). Acculturation may affect Mexican American youth's ability to continue to arrange to their traditional gender roles, marianismo and machismo, which are associated with their country of origin, and thus may increase the likelihood of substance use.

Immigrant women with initially low rates and levels of booze apply are more likely than their male person counterparts to adopt the drinking patterns of the majority culture during the acculturation process (National Constitute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 1997). Consequent with prior developmental enquiry, women's rates of initiation and continued alcohol use increase at a faster stride than males through the acculturation process (Collins & McNair, 2002). For Mexican women, this increased substance apply may exist due to a greater acceptance and adoption of individualist values that weaken collectivist values and diminish business about the bear on that substance use will have on family and friends. The acculturation procedure too facilitates the access of Mexican women to larger social networks that are less constraining regarding women'south substance apply (Kulis et al., 2010). Traditional Mexican gender roles take been shown to have an impact on the acculturation process as women immigrants transition to Mexican American civilization (Kranau, Green, & Valencia-Weber, 1982). For Mexican American girls, the transition from the restrictions on social experiences associated with marianismo to a wider, more various prepare of social contacts, and exposure to less conservative substance use norms that come with living in the U.s.a., is a much more profound change than is the case for Mexican American boys. The traditions of machismo for boys already allow for considerable liberty from parental restrictions and encouragement of peer relationships, making the transition to US culture and its permissive substance apply norms less of a change (Kulis et al., 2010). Thus, information technology would exist expected that acculturation would take more than of an impact on the relationships betwixt gender roles and substance apply among Mexican American girls than amid boys.

Hypotheses

The nowadays secondary data analyses of a big sample of Mexican-heritage seventh-grade adolescents sought to replicate previous findings on the effects of adaptive and maladaptive gender roles (independent variable) on substance misuse (dependent variable), also as test whether these relationships are conditional on acculturation (moderator variable). Hypotheses virtually the main furnishings of adaptive and maladaptive gender roles were formulated based on prior studies. Hypotheses regarding the moderating effects of acculturation were based on evidence that acculturation has a larger undesirable touch on the employ of substances by females than by males. Overall, nosotros expected that gender function influences on substance use would be strongest for less acculturated boys and more acculturated girls.

• It was expected that maladaptive masculinity would predict greater substance utilize, while adaptive femininity would predict lesser substance use in similar means for both boys and girls (Hypothesis 1).

• On the basis of previous findings in Mexican populations (Lara-Cantu et al., 1990), adaptive masculinity was expected to predict greater substance use for boys only, as a outcome of cultural expectations associating drug employ with masculinity (Hypothesis 2).

• Amid the to the lowest degree acculturated boys, the effects of machismo equally manifested in stiff expressions of adaptive and maladaptive masculinity were expected to predict greater substance use, while adaptive femininity was expected to predict less substance apply (Hypothesis 3).

• In contrast, for the most acculturated girls, the effects of the loss of marianismo would be reflected in stronger expressions of adaptive and maladaptive masculinity, which would predict greater substance utilise (Hypothesis 4).

METHODS

Sample

This secondary information assay study employed archival information from a randomized trial of a substance use prevention program in the Phoenix metropolitan surface area. The data come up from the Drug Resistance Strategies study, which developed and tested an adapted and enhanced version of the keepin' it REAL schoolhouse-based prevention intervention. The report involved seven school districts, 32 schools, 96 teachers, and more than 2000 students (run across Hecht et al., 2008 for a detailed study description). At the start of the written report, every fifth-grade student in the study schools was invited to participate in the study. Active parental consent/permission and student assent to complete the survey were obtained from an estimated 82% of the enrolled students, following both university and school district policies protecting human research subjects.

Students completed self-administered questionnaires at several points in fourth dimension, including a pre-exam at the outset of the 5th grade and five post-tests, with the last occurring in the Spring semester of the 8th grade. The majority of questionnaires were in English language, with only 68 (less than 5%) of the participants utilizing the Spanish version of the questionnaire. University-trained survey proctors administered the questionnaires in classrooms. Students were informed that the survey was part of a academy research project, their participation was voluntary, and their answers were confidential. Consented students who were absent-minded on the initial survey date were able to consummate the survey in class within a two-calendar week follow-upward menstruum.

The current analyses are based on information collected at the fifth wave of data collection when students were in the Spring semester of the 7th grade, the just wave when questions regarding gender roles were included in the questionnaire. A total of 1466 participants (691 boys, 775 girls) of Mexican or Mexican American ancestry provided data in the fifth moving ridge. The mean age of this sample was 12.seventy (SD = .59) at the time the information for the current analysis was collected in the Spring semester of the seventh grade.

Measures

Substance use outcomes were measured by a serial of questions where students cocky-reported the frequency and amount of their use of alcohol, cigarettes, marijuana, or inhalant within the past 30 days, with an additional question for frequency of binge drinking of alcohol ("v or more drinks within a few hours"). These questions were modeled after those used previously by Flannery, Williams, and Vazsonyi (1999) and were chosen for their developmental appropriateness for the age grouping under study and their successful use in a Mexican-heritage center school population (Kulis et al., 2005). For the questions assessing recent frequency of alcohol, cigarette, marijuana, and inhalant use, the responses were coded uniformly equally the number of times these substances were used in the last 30 days: i = 0 times, two = 1–2 times, 3 = three–5 times, iv = half dozen–9 times, 5 = 10–19 times, 6 = xx–39 times, and 7 = forty or more than times. Substance use amounts were reported in categories that varied by substance. For the amount of alcohol use in the last thirty days, responses were coded i = none, 2 = one drink, 3 = 2 or 3 drinks, 4 = four–vii drinks, 5 = 8–fifteen drinks, six = 16–30 drinks, and 7 = more than thirty drinks. For the last 30 days of binge drinking, responses were coded i = 0 times, 2 = 1 time, iii = 2 times, iv = three–5 times, and five = 6 or more than times. For the amount of cigarettes smoked in the terminal 30 days, responses were coded one = none, two = one puff, 3 = part or all of one cigarette, 4 = 2 or 3 cigarettes, 5 = 4–10 cigarettes, 6 = eleven–xx cigarettes, and 7 = more than than 20 cigarettes. For the corporeality of marijuana used in the last 30 days, responses were coded 1 = none, 2 = 1 hit, 3 = two or 3 hits, 4 = iv–10 hits, 5 = eleven–20 hits, 6 = 21–40 hits, and 7 = more than xl hits. Due to the wide variety of types of inhalants that are used and lack of standard units of consumption, amounts of inhalant use were not assessed in the questionnaire.

Sex differences were measured by self-report in response to the question "Are you a boy or a girl?" and coded 0 = male, ane = female.

Adaptive and maladaptive gender roles (Antill, Cunningham, Russell, & Thompson, 1981; Marsh & Myers, 1986; Ricciardelli & Williams, 1995; Russell & Antill, 1984) were measured by 12 items (Cronbach's alphas are based on the present sample). The 12 items that formed the four dimensions of gender roles asked students to describe how often they felt they fit gender-typed traits and behaviors, using a Likert scale from 0 = rarely to four = always. 3 adaptive masculinity items measured "believing masculinity," which captured a sense of self-confidence, assertiveness, and goal orientation (α = .70): "When I'k with my friends, I am a expert leader," "I express my stance even when others disagree," and "I have articulate goals for myself." Three items measured maladaptive masculinity, or "aggressive masculinity," indicating dominance and control over others (α = .67): "I am rude to others," "I am an aggressive person," and "I ignore rules that get in my way." The adaptive facets of femininity, or "affective femininity," included three items that measured nurturing, empathetic, and expressive aspects of femininity (α = .75): "I am a sugariness person," "I really want to know how others are feeling," and "When someone feels bad, I attempt to brand them feel better." In contrast, the three items measuring maladaptive aspects of femininity, or "submissive femininity," tapped a sense of dependence and inadequacy (α = .41; the low alpha is due to the minor number of items and the relatively low correlations among the items, but all inter-item correlations signal directly relationships ranging from r = .17 to r = .21): "When someone pressures me to do something, I just give in," "I have trouble making decisions," and "I spend time worrying about things." The Spanish version of these items was successfully used to mensurate gender roles in a report of adolescents residing in Mexico (Kulis et al., 2008).

Control variables included age, schoolhouse grades (coded 1 = "mostly F's" to 9 = "mostly A's"), whether the pupil came from a two-parent family unit (coded 0 = "other family type" versus 1 = "2-parent family"), and whether the pupil was receiving the federal schoolhouse dejeuner program (coded 1 = "free lunch," 2 = "reduced-toll lunch," and 3 = "neither"). School lunch participation, based on family income, provided a more reliable proxy measure out for socioeconomic status than students' imprecise knowledge of parental education or income levels. The sample was primarily composed of children from depression-income homes: 71% received a gratis lunch, and another 16% received a reduced-price lunch. Ii additional control variables were dummy-coded variables for whether the student'due south family unit was the start generation in the United States and whether the student's family was the second generation in the United States, with third-generation status every bit the reference group. These command variables were included to suit for variations in the sample on demographic factors that are important predictors of substance use amongst Mexican American adolescents (Kulis et al., 2008; Kulis et al., 2010; Parsai, Voisine, Marsiglia, Kulis, & Nieri, 2009; Voisine, Parsai, Marsiglia, Kulis, & Nieri, 2008). Treatment group was some other dummy-coded variable, with those not receiving the keepin' information technology Existent intervention coded 0 and those receiving the intervention coded one.

Acculturation was measured in two means. The absorption scale of the Acculturation, Habits, and Interests Multicultural Scale for Adolescents (AHIMSA; Unger et al., 2002) assesses acculturation in terms of the number of United states as opposed to Mexican cultural practices a person endorses. The linguistic acculturation scale (Marin, Sabogal, Marin, Otero-Sabogal, & Perez-Stable, 1987) was adapted from The Short Acculturation Scale for Hispanics (SASH). The original scale included 12 items related to three factors: (a) language use, (b) media, and (c) indigenous social relations. This study utilized three of the items asking about the caste to which English or Spanish is used with family unit and friends, and in using media (α = .72 in the current report sample). The three items ask what language is usually used "when talking with family members," "when talking with friends," and "when you scout Television set, listen to the radio, or listen to music." Response options are i = "Castilian just", two = "mostly Spanish," three = "both English and Spanish," 4 = "mostly English," and 5 = "English language only."

The use of English by Latino immigrants in the United States has oftentimes been used as a mensurate of acculturation because English language fluency affects the ability to interact and communicate with the majority culture (Unger, Ritt-Olsen, Wagner, Soto, & Baezconde-Garbanati, 2007). Although language is a unidimensional indicator of acculturation, previous studies have found that English language use is comparable to multidimensional measures, accounting for approximately 65% of the variance in acculturation condition (Epstein et al., 2001; Samaniego & Gonzales, 1999; Serrano & Anderson, 2003).

Analyses

Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted to predict amount and frequency of alcohol, cigarette, marijuana, or inhalant use, with models being run separately by gender. In preliminary multiple regression analyses, the AHIMSA assimilation calibration produced no significant main furnishings and no significant interactions with the 4 gender role scales in predicting substance use, so regression analyses are presented for linguistic acculturation solitary.

The kickoff cake of the model included the command variables, the second block added linguistic acculturation, the third block entered the four gender roles, and the concluding block entered the interactions of linguistic acculturation by gender roles. The iv interaction terms were computed by centering acculturation and each gender role and so multiplying the centered terms.

RESULTS

Table one presents the means and standard deviations for the control variables, acculturation measures, gender roles, and amount and frequency of alcohol, cigarette, marijuana, or inhalant use separately by gender, t-tests of hateful differences by gender are indicated in the right-hand column. Boys were significantly older than girls past about i month, reported poorer school grades than girls did, and were more than acculturated than girls, equally measured by the AHIMSA assimilation scale. There were no pregnant sex differences in family unit construction, generation status, or linguistic acculturation. Every bit expected, girls scored college than boys on adaptive and maladaptive femininity, but surprisingly, girls also scored higher than boys on adaptive masculinity and did not differ for maladaptive masculinity.

TABLE one

Means and standard deviations by gender

	Males		Females
Scale	Hateful	SD	Mean	SD	t
Age	10.38	0.56	10.28	0.51	three.76***
Grades in school	6.45	i.57	6.94	1.32	−vi.55***
Schoolhouse lunch	i.36	0.64	one.32	0.61	1.01
Two-parent family unit	0.71	0.46	0.72	0.45	−0.36
First generation	0.28	0.45	0.26	0.44	0.67
Second generation	0.53	0.fifty	0.53	0.50	0.07
AHIMSA assimilation	2.82	3.35	two.nineteen	2.98	iii.76***
Linguistic acculturation	3.38	0.86	iii.32	0.71	1.34
Adaptive masculinity	2.20	1.04	ii.52	0.92	−6.01***
Adaptive femininity	1.89	0.96	2.53	0.88	−12.45***
Maladaptive masculinity	1.15	0.88	ane.12	0.82	0.59
Maladaptive femininity	1.37	0.83	1.62	0.71	−5.93***
Alcohol amount	one.56	1.19	1.63	i.xix	−ane.01
Booze frequency	ane.33	0.90	1.41	0.90	−1.57
Binge drinking	1.28	0.80	1.31	0.79	−0.69
Cigarette corporeality	1.21	0.81	1.xiv	0.55	one.87
Cigarette frequency	1.14	0.63	ane.09	0.41	ane.67
Marijuana amount	1.37	one.17	1.22	0.81	2.82**
Marijuana frequency	one.27	0.99	ane.17	0.72	2.37*
Inhalant frequency	ane.11	0.62	1.17	0.67	−one.85

There were sex differences in the use of simply one substance. Boys scored significantly higher than girls only on marijuana amount and frequency. The pattern for the three alcohol measures and for inhalant use was the contrary, with girls reporting higher means than boys, although non significantly and so. Ways for the substance use outcomes generally indicated low levels of use of all substances. For the combined sample of boys and girls together (data not presented in tables), the hateful for recent alcohol utilize amount (one.86) corresponded to about one drink in the concluding xxx days, while mean frequency of any recent alcohol use (1.55) and rampage drinking (i.44) corresponded to betwixt 0 and one fourth dimension in the past 30 days. Means for the other substances were lower than for alcohol. Mean cigarette amount (1.26) and frequency (1.17) corresponded to the lower terminate of a range betwixt none and ane cigarette smoked and between no use and 1 occasion of use. Hateful marijuana amount (1.43) and frequency (1.32) were in the aforementioned range every bit those for cigarette use only closer to the midpoint. Hateful frequency of inhalant use (1.21) mirrored that for cigarette use. The overall prevalence of use, based on all the available questions regarding lifetime and recent use (information not presented in tables), showed that more of the sample had used alcohol (46.7%) than had ever used cigarettes (xvi.1%), marijuana (16.0%), and inhalants (10.3%).

Tabular array ii presents the intercorrelations among the acculturation and gender office measures, separately by gender (with girls above and boys below the diagonal). The AHIMSA assimilation scale was highly correlated with linguistic acculturation, but not with the gender role scales. Linguistic acculturation was correlated with higher adaptive masculinity scores amidst males, and with higher maladaptive masculinity scores among females, but was not associated with other gender part scales. There were strong direct correlations between adaptive masculinity and adaptive femininity for both boys and girls. All the other gender office scales were also directly correlated among the boys, although less strongly. Among the girls, however, adaptive femininity and maladaptive masculinity were inversely correlated and the adaptive and maladaptive masculinity scales were unrelated.

TABLE 2

Intercorrelations of acculturation and gender roles

Assimilation	Linguistic acculturation	Positive masculinity	Positive femininity	Negative masculinity	Negative femininity
AHIMSA assimilation	.62***	.03	−.01	.04	−.01
Linguistic acculturation	.56***	.05	−.01	.12**	.05
Adaptive masculinity	−.05	.11**	.62***	−.05	.xv***
Adaptive femininity	−.08	.02	.66***	−.xvi***	.26***
Maladaptive masculinity	−.01	.01	.28***	.14***	.41***
Maladaptive femininity	.05	.03	.39***	.46***	.46***

Table 3 presents correlations of the acculturation and gender role measures with the substance apply measures, separately by gender. In full general, higher levels of acculturation were not related to substance use, with the exception of greater marijuana use in girls. One of the gender role scales, maladaptive masculinity, was strongly associated with greater use of well-nigh all substances, both for boys and girls (Hypothesis 1). There were scattered relationships between adaptive femininity and lower levels of substance use for boys and girls (Hypothesis 1), with effects bars to booze amounts amid the girls, but including alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana amounts amid the boys. Maladaptive femininity was significantly correlated with greater use of alcohol and inhalants but only amid the girls. Opposite to Hypothesis two, adaptive masculinity was non correlated with substance use in boys, although as noted side by side, one positive correlation did emerge in the multiple regression analyses for booze frequency.

Table 3

Correlations of acculturation and gender roles with substance use

	Alcohol			Cigarettes		Marijuana
	Amount	Frequency	Rampage drinking	Amount	Frequency	Corporeality	Frequency	Inhalant Frequency
Males
AHIMSA assimilation	−.04	−.04	.03	−.01	.00	.01	.06	−.01
Linguistic acculturation	−.01	−.01	−.01	−.04	−.04	.05	.04	−.05
Adaptive masculinity	−.01	.08	−.01	−.03	.03	.01	.01	−.03
Adaptive femininity	−.08*	−.05	−.07	−.09*	−.06	−.08*	−.07	−.06
Maladaptive masculinity	.24***	.25***	.23***	.twenty***	.21***	.xvi***	.17***	.fifteen***
Maladaptive femininity	−.03	.03	−.01	.03	.06	.00	.01	.05
Females
AHIMSA assimilation	−.02	.00	.00	.00	.03	.09*	.09*	.01
Linguistic acculturation	.00	.02	−.02	.01	−.01	.08*	.03	.00
Adaptive masculinity	−.01	.02	.01	.00	.02	.03	.06	−.01
Adaptive femininity	−.08*	−.08*	−.05	−.01	.01	−.04	−.02	−.05
Maladaptive masculinity	.26***	.23***	.21***	.09*	.07	.17***	.fourteen***	.19***
Maladaptive femininity	.08*	.eleven**	.13***	.04	.01	.05	.05	.12***

The hierarchical multiple regression results are presented separately by gender, first for males (Tables iv) and then for females (Table 5). The R ² change reported for each block represents the effect of the variables in the block over and in a higher place the effects of variables in previous blocks. In general, the gender office main effects suggested in the bivariate correlations were non affected by the addition of the interaction terms, so the betas for the total model are presented after the addition of the fourth cake of predictors.

TABLE four

Hierarchical multiple regressions of alcohol, cigarette, marijuana, and inhalant frequency and amount: Males

	Alcohol						Cigarettes				Marijuana
	Amount		Frequency		Binge drinking		Corporeality		Frequency		Amount		Frequency		Inhalants Frequency
	Betaa	ΔR 2	Beta	ΔR 2	Beta	ΔR ii	Beta	ΔR ii	Beta	ΔR 2	Beta	ΔR two	Beta	ΔR ii	Beta	ΔR 2
Block 1
Treatment	.08+		.03		.06		.01		.01		.04		.04		.03
Age	.07+		.02		.03		−.03		−.05		.07		.05		−.07
Grades in school	−.03		−.06		−.05		−.01		−.03		−.08+		−.08+		.00
Schoolhouse lunch	.09		.04		.06		.04		.06		.01		.01		−.02
2-parent family	.02		.02		.04		.01		.00		.01		−.02		−.05
Commencement generation	−.xi+		−.15*		−.17*		−.xv*		−.16*		−.28***		−.23***			−.07
Second generation	−.13+	.04 *	−.13+	.03 +	−.12+	.03 *	−.ten	.01	−.11	.02	−.22***	.05 ***	−.17*	.04 **	−.03	.01
Cake 2
Linguistic acculturation	−.03	.01	−.05	.01 +	−.02	.00	−.08	.01	−.11+	.01 *	−.07	.00	−.08	.01 +	−.08	.01*
Cake iii
Adaptive masculinity	.00		.13*		−.02		.00		.06		.07		.07		.05
Adaptive femininity	−.06		−.13*		−.06		−.11 +		−.13*		−.xiii*		−.x+		−.14*
Maladaptive masculinty	.31***		.26***		.24***		.21***		.18***		.14**		.17***		.16**
Maladaptive femininity	−.15**	.07 ***	−.09	.06 ***	−.07	.04 ***	.00	.04 ***	.03	.04 ***	−.06	.03 **	−.04	.03 **	.02	.03 **
Cake four
Linguistic acculturation by adaptive masculinity	−.09		−.09		−.fifteen*		−.12+		−.thirteen*		−.16*		−.nineteen**		−.13*
Linguistic acculturation past adaptive femininity	.13+		.13+		.19*		.12+		.xi		.11		.13+		.19**
Linguistic acculturation by maladaptive masculinity	−.07		−.09+		−.09+		−.05		−.05		−.05		−.08		−.xiii*
Linguistic acculturation by maladaptive femininity	.05	.01	.07	.02 +	.05	.02 *	.02	.01	.03	.01	.03	.01 +	.07	.02 *	.03	.03 **

Tabular array 5

Hierarchical multiple regressions of booze, cigarette, marijuana, and inhalant frequency and amount: females

	Alcohol						Cigarettes				Marijuana
	Corporeality		Frequency		Binge drinking		Amount		Frequency		Amount		Frequency		Inhalants Frequency
	Betaa	ΔR 2	Beta	ΔR two	Beta	ΔR 2	Beta	ΔR 2	Beta	ΔR 2	Beta	ΔR two	Beta	ΔR 2	Beta	ΔR 2
Cake 1
Treatment	.03		.03		−.01		−.01		.01		.00		−.02		.08*
Age	.04		.02		−.01		.01		−.03		.04		.05		−.01
Grades in school	−.01		−.02		−.03		−.02		−.01		.00		.02		.00
School dejeuner	−.04		−.04		−.04		−.02		−.01		−.04		−.04		.00
Ii-parent family unit	−.04		−.02		−.01		−.04		−.05		.05		.03		.02
First generation	−.10		−.07		−.06		.00		−.06		−.15*		−.17**		.04
Second generation	−.03	.02	.02	.02	.02	.01	.06	.01	.02	.01	−.08	.02 +	−.10+	.02 +	.09	.02
Cake ii
Linguistic acculturation	−.07	.00	−.03	.00	−.04	.00	.00	.00	−.05	.00	.01	.00	−.05	.00	.02	.00
Block iii
Adaptive masculinity	.05		.11*		.06		.03		.04		.09+		.11*		.02
Adaptive femininity	−.08		−.12*		−.07		−.01		.00		−.08		−.09		−.06
Maladaptive masculinty	.25***		.18***		.xviii***		.09+		.08+		.12**		.eleven*		.17***
Maladaptive femininity	−.01	.07 ***	.03	.06 ***	.06	.05 ***	−.02	.01	−.03	.01	−.02	.03 **	−.01	.02 **	.08	.04 ***
Block 4
Linguistic acculturation by adaptive masculinity	.03		.04		.03		−.08		−.07		−.04		−.01		−.06
Linguistic acculturation by adaptive femininity	.01		.00		−.03		.04		.02		.01		−.01		.01
Linguistic acculturation past maladaptive masculinity	.01		.06		.01		−.01		−.04		.12**		.08+		−.06
Linguistic acculturation by maladaptive femininity	−.06	.00	−.02	.00	−.02	.00	−.04	.01	−.01	.01	−.08	.01 +	−.05	.01	−.04	.01

For boys, (Table 4) greater maladaptive masculinity correlated with higher substance utilise across all outcomes. Greater adaptive femininity was a significant indicator of lower booze frequency, cigarette amounts and frequency, marijuana amounts, and inhalant frequency. Adaptive masculinity indicated only higher alcohol frequency, while maladaptive femininity indicated just lower alcohol amounts. Among the boys, there were several significant and most-significant interactions between linguistic acculturation and adaptive masculinity in the aforementioned management. More often than not, greater adaptive masculinity was correlated with greater substance use for less acculturated boys, but indicated lesser substance use for highly acculturated boys. This pattern tin can be seen using the interactions to calculate the estimated effects of adaptive masculinity for boys who scored low, medium, and loftier in linguistic acculturation. Subjects were split into roughly equal thirds based on their linguistic acculturation score in lodge to show the regression slopes, especially for the low and loftier groups (data non presented in tables). The typical blueprint of these interactions is shown in Figure two for rampage drinking, with substance use levels being highest amidst boys who were the least acculturated but loftier in adaptive masculinity (Hypothesis three). The standardized effects (betas) of adaptive masculinity for low, medium, and high acculturation groups, respectively (in parentheses), differed in the same pattern for: binge drinking (.115, −.017, −.050), cigarette amounts (.038, −.017, −.095), cigarette frequency (.112, .043, −.078), marijuana amounts (.174, .039, −.176), marijuana frequency (.184, .040, −.176), and inhalant frequency (.095, −.055, −.004).

Linguistic acculturation by adaptive masculinity interaction for binge drinking in boys.

There were also several pregnant and near-meaning interactions between linguistic acculturation and adaptive femininity amid the boys, but the typical pattern was the opposite of the interactions with adaptive masculinity, as shown in Figure 3 for binge drinking. Hither, the less acculturated boys who were low in adaptive femininity reported the most substance utilise and those high in adaptive femininity reported the least substance use (Hypothesis 3). Using betas for low, medium, and high acculturation groups (in parentheses), this pattern appeared for: binge drinking (−.245, −.075, .076), alcohol corporeality (−.245, −.058, .009), booze frequency (−.256, −.013, .067), cigarette corporeality (−.228, −.058, −.050), marijuana frequency (−.230, .003, −.125), and inhalant frequency (−.178, −.028, .093).

Linguistic acculturation by adaptive femininity interaction for binge drinking in boys.

Finally, at that place were significant or almost-significant interactions of linguistic acculturation by maladaptive masculinity for several outcomes: booze frequency (.405, .234, .199), rampage drinking (.460, .192, .173), and inhalant frequency (.356, .106, .082), with greater maladaptive masculinity existence predictive of greater substance utilise, particularly for low acculturated boys (Hypothesis 3). In contrast, in that location was no prove of appreciable interactions between linguistic acculturation and maladaptive femininity.

Tabular array 5 presents the hierarchical multiple regression results for girls. Here, two of the gender role master effects were afflicted by the addition of all the terms in the model. The significant bivariate correlations of maladaptive femininity with substance utilise shown in Table 3 were no longer meaning in the full-model multiple regressions. In addition, there were main effects of adaptive masculinity on booze frequency and marijuana amounts and frequency in the full regression models that did not emerge as significant bivariate correlations in Tabular array 3. For boys, across all variables, greater maladaptive masculinity predicted greater substance use. Greater adaptive femininity significantly or near-significantly predicted lower alcohol frequency, while adaptive masculinity predicted higher booze frequency and marijuana amount and frequency. For girls, at that place were significant or near-pregnant interactions of linguistic acculturation by maladaptive masculinity. In contrast to boys, however, greater maladaptive masculinity predicted greater drug use for highly acculturated girls (Hypothesis 4). Figure iv shows this interaction for marijuana amount, with highly acculturated girls who scored high in maladaptive masculinity reporting the most marijuana use. The betas representing the outcome of maladaptive masculinity for depression, medium, and high acculturation groups (in parentheses) were in a like pattern for marijuana corporeality (.072, .143, .252) and marijuana frequency (.101, .109, .292). None of the other iii gender office scales in interaction with acculturation had pregnant effects on any consequence for girls, including the blueprint of effects predicted for adaptive masculinity in Hypothesis 4.

Linguistic acculturation by maladaptive masculinity interaction for marijuana amount in girls.

DISCUSSION

Consistent with the study of Mexican loftier school students by Kulis et al. (2008), in the present sample of Mexican American 7th-graders, maladaptive, aggressive masculinity was correlated with greater substance apply, while adaptive, affective femininity was correlated with lesser substance use, for both boys and girls. From Spence'due south (1984) functional model of gender roles, it can exist argued that college maladaptive masculinity is indicative of poor instrumental coping strategies, while lower adaptive femininity is indicative of poor expressive coping strategies. Poor instrumental coping strategies may atomic number 82 to internalizing (depression, feet, social withdrawal) symptoms, due to negative emotions from social failure, or externalizing (impulsivity, sensation seeking, antisociality) trouble behaviors, due to an inability to engage in adaptive problem-solving behaviors (Oldehinkel et al., 2004). Internalizing increases the risk for substance use, possibly through the use of drugs to self-medicate negative effects, while externalizing increases the risk for substance employ by encouraging impulsive and thrill-seeking behaviors. In dissimilarity, highly expressive individuals may be less likely to have pathological issues leading to drug use due to their effective interpersonal skills and high levels of social support (Steenberger & Greenberg, 1990; Wells, 1980). Such individuals may also be less likely to hang out with socially deviant peers.

The sex activity differences that emerged from this report in the significant interactions of acculturation past gender roles provide additional insights into the gender role–substance utilise human relationship. Consequent with our hypotheses, for Mexican American boys, adaptive masculinity and maladaptive masculinity were specially predictive of greater substance use, while adaptive femininity predicted less substance utilise for those who were depression in acculturation. It is also interesting that while at that place were many significant interactions of acculturation and adaptive masculinity for boys, there was just one meaning master consequence of adaptive masculinity in multivariate models and no meaning correlations in the bivariate results. Moreover, the significant interaction effects of adaptive masculinity past acculturation appeared only for binge drinking of alcohol, not general alcohol employ frequency and amounts in the last xxx days. Taken together, these findings are consistent with the thought that socialization of adulthood in boys raised under traditional Mexican values fosters high levels of excessive booze to the point of inebriation. Postcolonial machismo (Hardin, 2002) encourages a view of masculinity and instrumental competence that includes the ability to eat large amounts of alcohol and perhaps other drugs (Caetano & Medina-Mora, 1988; Unger et al., 2006). For less acculturated Mexican-heritage boys, both facets of masculinity measured in this study—assertive, self-confident, trouble-solving adaptive masculinity and aggressive, decision-making maladaptive masculinity—may promote excessive substance use in the grade of fiesta drinking and use of other substances. Possibly through acculturation, Mexican American boys may be socialized into more flexible definitions of masculinity that decouple such masculinity from substance use. On the other paw, less acculturated boys are subject to the strongest influence of traditional Mexican cultural values that associate masculinity or machismo with increased substance utilize and femininity or marianismo with less substance apply.

In dissimilarity, but also consistent with our hypotheses, for Mexican American girls, maladaptive masculinity was particularly indicative of greater substance apply for those who were high in linguistic acculturation. The more acculturated girls who adopt mainstream American gender roles may begin to manifest masculinity traits that are associated with greater substance use. In terms of maladaptive, submissive femininity, greater marianismo in the least acculturated girls might be expected to predict lower levels of substance use, while maladaptive femininity in highly acculturated girls might be expected to increase vulnerability to substance use. What was unanticipated in the hypotheses was that this event would only predict marijuana use, not utilise of other substances, and that no interactions between adaptive masculinity and acculturation would sally for girls. One interpretation of this finding is that the protective effects of marianismo—socialization into gender roles that discourage substance use and limit social interactions outside controlled family settings—may diminish chop-chop through acculturation, leading to the adoption of pro-drug use norms and more opportunities to use substances. Another possible interpretation is that more than acculturated Mexican American girls may be particularly vulnerable to converting psychological distress into heavier substance employ. Evidence for both interpretations came from a small-scale sample study of Mexican American adolescents that found that while for girls aggressive masculinity and submissive femininity significantly predicted greater alcohol use, these effects were almost completely mediated by internalizing problem behaviors, externalizing problem behaviors, and peer substance use (Kulis et al., 2007; Kulis et al., 2010). It should be noted that in this study, internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors did non at all mediate the significant relationships between adaptive and maladaptive gender roles and alcohol use in Mexican American boys.

For Mexican American adolescent girls, substance use may exist a response to psychological distress. This psychological distress tin be exacerbated by dissimilar societal gender role expectations inside their state of origin (United mexican states) and with the new transition to the U.s. culture. While the gender function expectations for girls in Mexico may differ significantly from those for boys, this difference may erode as girls become more acculturated to the US culture. These differences in gender role expectations may besides differ from ane surface area of Mexico to another.

Sex differences in pubertal modify may also be important. Benjet and Hernandez-Guzman'due south (2002) enquiry with early adolescents in Mexico found that pubertal modify was associated with greater depression in boyish females but no change in psychological aligning in adolescent males. The greater physical adjustment required of adolescent girls reaching the age of menarche and adolescent girls' socialization into a subordinate social part may contribute to greater emotional distress and internalizing, as well as maladaptive ambitious externalizing problem behaviors. In particular, the developmental onset and changes occurring during puberty can pb to an increased likelihood of substance apply for girls (Kulis et al., 2009). In ways that can exist more than astringent than for boys, puberty tin affect girls' physical and emotional well-being, pose challenges to body prototype, and increment low (NCASA, 2003) and conflict with peers (LeCroy & Daley, 2001).

STUDY LIMITATIONS

In terms of study limitations, this sample was a large sample for a randomized trial that included an array of public schools in a large southwestern city, schools located mostly in lower-income and predominantly Latino neighborhoods. The sample may not be representative of all Mexican American students of this age, especially those of higher socioeconomic backgrounds, those in more ethnically mixed schools, and those in regions of the country with a different immigration history and proximity to Mexico. Similar to the positive aspects of marianismo in Mexico, every bit Montoya (2007) points out, in parts of Latin America, women's roles in social club are highly valued. Therefore, cross-cultural differences should be taken into consideration for future research. As noted earlier, poverty may moderate the effects of the variables studied here in several ways. For example, poor neighborhood characteristics appear to weaken parenting effectiveness in preventing problem behaviors in Hispanic youth (Ceballo & Hurd, 2008; Gayles, Coatsworth, Pantin, & Szapocznik, 2009).

The study's cross-sectional design limits causal inferences. The gender role measures had only a few items for each subscale, and the internal consistency (α) of these subscales was marginal. Considering gender roles are a social construction, at that place could be a high social desirability bias when request questions about them. While girls may report depression instrumentality, they may actually feel quite instrumental in their lives, particularly due to a college value on caretaking in a Latin American context. Future inquiry should address this possible discrepancy through a mixed-methods design. A longitudinal design would also be of utilise to trace the effect of early gender part socialization on later adolescent and young adult substance use, also as would permit the examination of important mediating variables, such as internalizing and externalizing trouble behaviors.

CONCLUSIONS

The present findings confirm the importance of gender roles in predicting substance use among Mexican American adolescents. That acculturation moderates the furnishings of these gender roles on substance utilise suggests that gender roles and gender role socialization may indeed exist promising targets for interventions to prevent the development of adolescent substance use and problems. The present findings also confirm the importance of agreement the different pathways of chance for the development of substance utilize and problems for adolescent boys versus boyish girls.

Acknowledgments

Funding for the study was provided past the National Plant on Minority Wellness and Health Disparities (P20MD002316) and the National Institute on Drug Abuse (R01 DA005629).

GLOSSARY

Acculturation	The ongoing process through which people from ane civilisation accommodate and suit to another civilisation.
Adaptive and maladaptive gender roles: Ambitious masculinity	Characterized by controlling and potency.
Believing masculinity	Characterized by self-confidence, competence, and leadership.
Affective femininity	Characterized past emotional expressiveness, empathy, nurturance, and sense of communion.
Submissive femininity	Characterized by inadequacy and dependence.
Expressive behaviors	Giving primacy to facilitating the social interaction process.
Gender roles	The stereotypical emotions, cognitions, and behaviors associated with being male or female person that are presumably caused through socialization (social learning, modeling, etc.).
Instrumental behaviors	Focused on attainment of goals external to the social interaction process.
Adulthood	Traditional Mexican beliefs about gender roles for men. Adaptive aspects include honor, respect, bravery, and a deep sense of family unit commitment. Maladaptive characteristics of machismo are invulnerability, patriarchal dominance, and aggressiveness.
Marianismo	Traditional Mexican beliefs about gender roles for women. Adaptive characteristics include cocky-sacrifice, collectivism, family devotion, and the nurturing of others, but it also may promote maladaptive characteristics such as dependency, passiveness, and submissiveness.

Biographies

Stephen Kulis (Ph.D., Columbia Academy, 1984) is Cowden Distinguished Professor of Folklore in the School of Social and Family Dynamics at Arizona Land University (ASU), and an affiliated kinesthesia member in the School of Social Piece of work, the Justice and Social Inquiry Program, and the Women and Gender Studies Plan. He is the Director of Enquiry at the Southwest Interdisciplinary Research Center (SIRC) at ASU, which is an NIH/NIMHD (National Institutes of Health/National Found on Minority Wellness and Health Disparities)-funded Eye of Excellence for health disparities inquiry. His enquiry has focused on cultural processes in wellness disparities, such equally the role of gender and ethnic identity in youth drug use and prevention interventions; cultural accommodation of prevention programs for ethnic minority youth; contextual neighborhood and school level influences on private level risk and protective behaviors; gender and racial inequities in professional careers; and the organizational sources of indigenous and gender discrimination.

Flavio F. Marsiglia, Ph.D., is the Distinguished Foundation Professor of Cultural Diversity and Health at ASU's Schoolhouse of Social Piece of work and the Director of the SIRC. SIRC is an exploratory Center of Excellence on wellness disparities research and training is funded by the NIMHD of the NIH. Dr. Marsiglia is the principal investigator on other externally funded research projects, studying risk and protective factors associated with wellness and mental health outcomes amongst Mexican/Mexican American and American Indian youth and their families. He also leads a global health initiative with projects in Mexico, Kingdom of spain, and Tanzania.

Julie Nagoshi is a Ph.D. educatee in the Schoolhouse of Social Work at ASU and is a graduate associate with the SIRC. Julie has received a predoctoral fellowship from the National Institute on Drug Corruption (NIDA). Julie's inquiry interests include gender identity, gender roles, acculturation, and substance use.

Footnotes

^aneThe periodical's style utilizes the category substance abuse as a diagnostic category. Substances are used or misused; living organisms are and can be abused.

Proclamation of Involvement

The authors report no conflicts of interest. The authors alone are responsible for the content and writing of the article.

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Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3402241/

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